Globally, the number of violent offences and crimes promoted through gangs, guns, and knives has been increasing rapidly in recent years, leading to physical, psychological, and societal costs. In the United Kingdom, gang and weapon-related crime has been a source of unimaginable pain, especially in urban areas such as London, Manchester, and Bristol. Families have lost their loved ones, and communities have been forced to increase their security in an attempt to prevent the prevalence of this destructive vice. Furthermore, involvement in these criminal activities is a process that occurs over time, and individual, school, family, and social experiences significantly influence it in society. Although risk factors linked with involvement in gangs, gun crime, and knife crime appear long before an individual engages in these activities, protective measures such as access to resources, positive peer influences, academic achievement, inclusive social and economic policies, and supportive family and adult relationships can significantly address this prevalent issue.
One of the main risk factors that promotes gang, knife, and gun-related crimes involves economic deprivation and marginalisation of youths. The deliberate marginalisation of youth from society’s leading financial and social activities has substantially subjected them to self-destructive behaviours since they have minimal options to stay active (Franzese, 2016). As a result of economic deprivation, most young people continuously seek refuge in criminal activities as a means of belonging, gaining power, masculinity, and status in society, exposing them to death and injuries. Sapiro and Ward (2020) argue that marginalisation breeds hatred of the existing structures of society by marginalised groups. The hatred leads the individual to destroy the structures, and this explains why the youth have indulged themselves in gangs, knife crime, and gun violence. Therefore, marginalising the youth risks exposing them to criminal activities that adversely affect society’s well-being and threaten to bring about anarchy.
Newham, a suburb of East London, is one of the most glaring examples of economic exclusion. To capture the accurate picture, White (2020) argues that “in a highly capitalised system where everyone wants to be on top, the majority remain at the bottom” (p. 2). The cost of living due to this exclusion has been a source of outcry within various circles in the Newham suburb. The main contributing factors to this exclusion are limited opportunities and racism, especially toward the black population (Bayliss et al., 2021). Furthermore, gang members consider themselves as urban outcasts in the sense that they are automatically stereotyped. Even though London is one of the world’s financial hubs, the elites enjoy the spoils at the expense of the middle and lower classes. Therefore, it is essential to note that economic exclusion also plays a part in exposing the youth and other groups to criminal activities.
Educational inequalities in inner cities are another critical risk factor that contributes to the involvement of gangs in criminal activities. Hobbs (2015) states that schools in urban centres crowded with minority populations have inadequate resources to enable them to carry out learning activities effectively. The lack of enough facilities has created the notion of discrimination, especially among schools that are predominantly black in their population. Furthermore, William &Squires (2021) describe a pattern of surveillance and policing in schools harbouring minority groups in response to knife crime that increases the tension in schools and further contributes to the criminalisation of minority groups. Therefore, there is a need to break the inequality prevalent in the education sector and embrace students from different backgrounds.
A criminal justice system riddled with cases of discriminatory policies and racial prejudices contributes significantly to the vulnerability of young people and groups, especially in the inner cities. Harding (2020) argues that racial profiling of blacks by law enforcement officials and their aggressiveness in the pursuit of these people they consider criminals unfairly leads to a high number of arrests and incarceration. William & Squires (2021) criticise what they term a militarised approach to policing knife crime, stating that it deals a significant blow to the trust between law enforcement agencies and black communities. Discrimination in law enforcement, therefore, poses a considerable risk factor in the policing of knife crime while deepening mistrust between law enforcement officers and minority groups in communities from different locations.
Family dynamics and social support networks are some risk factors that are prevalent long before an individual starts to engage in criminal activities. Dysfunctional families characterise these factors as they lack supervision and observation of young people who are susceptible to the promises given out on the benefits of crime (Squires, 2022). Since most youths from such backgrounds were the most socially and behaviorally disturbed in childhood, they tend to join gangs and involve themselves in knife and gun crime (William & Squires, 2021). The scholars encourage families to be at the forefront of engaging their respective young members and dissuading them from engaging in knife and gun crime, which they conclude are detrimental to society. It is imperative to strengthen familial bonds and support networks to discourage young people from such activities since families are a constant source of counselling and protection.
Mental health issues are another set of risk factors that contribute to criminal activities. According to the National Center for Biotechnology Information (2001), mental health is a subject of intense debate in today’s world. White (2020) asserts that youth from less privileged backgrounds, in terms of economic, social, and political aspects, may bear anxiety and traumatic experiences. The trauma is a result of violence, which is prevalent in poor neighbourhoods. Relevant authorities can mitigate it through solid intervention and implementation of policies to prevent these young people from engaging in criminal activities. Mental health support tailored for such situations comes in handy in helping groups that have been affected by knife and gun violence. Mental issues consequently contribute to gun and knife violence, and it is a matter of urgency to support the youth through mental health facilities.
The identification of multiple risk factors, such as poor mental health and adverse childhood experiences, aligns with previous research, as a link exists between trauma and gang involvement among the youth. Different research studies have shown the physical, psychological, and health impact of childhood trauma on teenagers and even adults (Squires & Kennison, 2010). For example, the increased mass shootings in schools, festivals, and other social gatherings show the need for children to have a holistic support system as they grow to prevent such mental breakdowns. Children most likely steal the guns from their parents and decide to go on a mission to kill their peers. Therefore, the government must undertake an armed response to regulate the use of firearms and ownership licenses to avoid mass shootings by people with chronic mental problems. Public health interventions need to target all people who are at risk of ACEs and lack good mental health to reduce gang involvement and gun and knife violence.
Housing conditions and neighbourhood safety are vital environmental risk factors that immensely impact the well-being of individuals in inner-city areas. Ideally, housing instability and exposure to various environmental hazards adversely affect physical health and contribute to social disintegration (White, 2020). Disintegration and deficits in physical health may easily lead the youth to secure weapons such as knives and guns to protect themselves from frequent neighbourhood attacks. Hobbs (2013) explains the urgency of addressing underlying social and economic inequalities to create safer and more resilient communities. By prioritising investments in affordable housing and community development initiatives, policymakers can address the root causes of housing insecurity and promote community cohesion among young individuals in inner-city environments. Therefore, poor housing conditions show that most people are living in abject poverty, and they are more likely to engage in criminal activities to earn a living. Since most young people have this notion and dream of one day living large and getting out of the hoods, they create extreme rivalry in businesses, promoting gun and knife crime.
Peer influence also shapes the young individual’s behaviours in urban areas. Peer pressure and the desire for approval among age mates can make an individual adopt risky behaviours, potentially increasing their vulnerability to adverse outcomes such as crime and death (Denslay, 2013). However, to address the issue of peer influence in urban locations, a need arises to foster positive peer relationships and enact community mentorship programs. These initiatives can effectively drive at-risk youth away from violence and criminality by providing them with support, guidance, and positive role models. Strengthening positive social networks and offering mentorship opportunities are crucial strategies for mitigating the influence of negative peer pressure and promoting positive youth development in inner-city areas. Through these interventions, communities can empower young individuals to make informed choices and lead fulfilling lives despite the challenges.
Establishing strong familial bonds is the central protective aspect in safeguarding the welfare of youths committing crimes in urban centres. Robust family ties act as armour for emotional support and stability and prevent the negative impact of injustices and social problems among young people (Franzese, 2016). Moreover, nurturing family environments involves cultivating resilience and facilitating positive youth development, which offers a vital sense of belonging and security amidst external challenges (Williams & Squires, 2021). Capitalizing on family support programs and reinforcing familial relationships develops a critical strategy to fortify protective factors for young individuals. Directing necessary resources towards initiatives that strengthen family bonds and promote positive parent-child relationships, policymakers and community stakeholders can create a nurturing ecosystem that empowers youth to navigate the intricate landscape of inner-city life more effectively.
Social networks and close community cohesion help develop the youth’s upbeat personality in urban settings. Indeed, positive social connections within communities offer perfect opportunities for mentorship, social support, and collective problem-solving, which protect against the challenges posed by inequalities (White, 2020). Moreover, community-led initiatives assist in nurturing a sense of belonging and inspiring young Black individuals to navigate vast social adversities and realise their potential (Williams & Squires, 2021). Promoting community cohesion and facilitating positive social interactions emerges as a pivotal strategy to strengthen protective factors for individuals. By developing supportive environments that encourage collaboration and mutual aid, policymakers and community leaders can create conditions conducive to the well-being and success of youth in inner-city areas. Therefore, prioritising investments in community-building efforts is essential in empowering the youth because it creates necessary opportunities and resources for them to thrive.
Equitable access to educational opportunities, particularly quality education, enables marginalised groups to advance their careers and attain powerful societal positions. Educational resources and equitable access to educational opportunities are significant in creating positive outcomes for young students (Brown &James, 2020). Scholars advocate for enhanced educational investment to break the poverty cycle and equip individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary for success in a competitive society (Williams & Squires, 2021). Encouraging educational equity and supporting academic achievement are essential in enhancing protective factors for individuals in inner-city areas who would otherwise engage in criminal activities. Policymakers can empower individuals to overcome barriers by ensuring access to quality education and addressing disparities in educational resources. Therefore, access to equal education opportunities is crucial in preventing the spread of criminal activities.
Based on the evidence concerning gang violence prevention, developing sound relationships and interaction patterns with mentors is essential for young people. Mentorship offers guidance and robust chances for individual growth, emphasising its role in positively shaping youth outcomes (Claro & Perelmeter, 2022). Moreover, mentorship programs that connect young Black individuals with positive role models from their communities encourage them to navigate challenges and pursue their goals (Johnson et al., 2020). They also empower young Black individuals to overcome crime-related issues and realise their potential in inner-city environments. Establishing mentorship programs and cultivating positive role models represents a proactive approach to enhancing protective factors for young individuals. Therefore, valuable support and guidance from mentorship initiatives contribute to the well-being of the youth.
Unlimited access to mental health support services is necessary for promoting well-being among young individuals residing in inner-city settings. Nevertheless, exposure to violence and trauma has a massive impact on the mental health of young people, specifically those from minority groups (Boyd et al., 2022). In this way, they can seek quality mental health services that suit their needs. An urgency exists to deal with multiple disparities of mental health within Black communities and dismantle the stigma associated with seeking such services (William & Squires, 2020). Therefore, policymakers can support protective factors for young individuals, equipping them with the necessary resources to cope with challenges and prosper in the problematic urban landscape that continues to pose significant challenges. This course of action requires investing in comprehensive mental health services and enhancing a wellness culture to ensure that every racial group is involved.
Positive social connections and peer relationships safeguard young Black individuals from involvement in criminal behaviour within their inner-city contexts. Peer support and constructive social networks are significant in guiding youth from risky behaviours and contributing to positive development in different aspects of life (Sonneveld et al., 2020). This claim shows the importance of creating positive peer relationships and facilitating opportunities for social engagement and community participation to strengthen resilience and well-being among young Black individuals (Winstone et al., 2021). Policymakers can enhance protective factors for individuals, empowering them to navigate the challenges of inner-city life with resilience and confidence. Therefore, they need to foster an environment that encourages positive social interactions and supportive peer networks,
The participation of citizens and community organisations helps in preventing the youth from engaging in knife and gun violence. Community engagement has a transformative influence because it creates a sense of belonging and empowerment among youth (Franzese, 2016). The scholar further advocates for community-driven initiatives that actively engage young individuals in civic activities, offering them opportunities to contribute positively to their social culture. By encouraging civic participation, communities can cultivate a sense of agency and inclusivity among young individuals, thereby enhancing their defenses against social evils rampant in inner-city life. Engaging in civic affairs not only empowers youth but also instills a sense of responsibility and belonging, ultimately enhancing their overall well-being and resilience amid the challenges of urban living. The well-being of the youth is beneficial for society in the long run.
Governments must provide equal access to economic opportunities and financial resources in all neighbourhoods as a protective measure for increased crime rates. After extensively researching economic inequalities in the life paths of young individuals, Kirkbride et al. (2024) stressed the critical need for equitable access to resources. The researcher emphasised the need to address economic disparities through education, training, and employment opportunities. By prioritising economic empowerment initiatives, policymakers can establish pathways to financial stability, thus fortifying protective factors and realising potential among young Black individuals in inner-city environments. The communities must ensure equitable access to economic resources that provide individual well-being and contribute to the growth of communities disproportionately affected by economic inequities that threaten the stability of societies.
Cultural identity also gives protection against the adverse effects of discrimination against young people in urban centres. It helps foster strength and provides a sense of belonging despite the many challenges they might experience. Moreover, cultural pride encompasses empowerment as it can promote positive self-esteem and resilience among young Black individuals (Densley, 2013). Communities can create environments where individuals feel supported and empowered to encounter difficulties in inner-city environments, such as developing a sense of pride and belonging. Celebrating cultural identity and heritage within communities strengthens protective factors, empowering young individuals to confront discrimination and adversity with dignity and strength. Embracing cultural identity is a powerful tool for advancing well-being and resoluteness, enabling young individuals to thrive despite obstacles.
The other protective factor in reducing crime rates involves investing in community infrastructure. The government must ensure that youths have unlimited access to quality healthcare and recreational facilities to nurture their holistic development. Community-based interventions targeting systemic inequalities must be leveraged to provide essential resources and opportunities for flourishing citizens (Deutsch, 2023). Communities can also strengthen protective factors, fostering environments that support the overall health and well-being of youth living in inner-city environments. Policymakers can create environments conducive to the growth and prosperity of young individuals through strategic investments in community resources and infrastructure. These investments empower individuals to cope with challenges that are constantly affecting them.
To protect individuals from involvement in crime, governments globally must integrate inclusivity into policymaking and stop discriminatory practices. In the UK, sound policies must be implemented to combat systemic racism and discrimination. This action ensures fair access to opportunities and resources for all individuals, irrespective of race. Furthermore, they should prioritize implementing anti-discrimination measures that safeguard the rights of young Black individuals and foster inclusivity across various sectors of society (Williams & Squires, 2021). Policymakers can establish environments conducive to the resilience and well-being of young Black individuals by enacting inclusive policies and anti-discrimination measures. These measures mitigate the impact of systemic barriers, promoting equal access to opportunities and fostering environments where all individuals can thrive. Therefore, countries implementing such policies work toward creating inclusive regulations that ensure all people are included in development and economic growth initiatives.
Protective factors are crucial in mitigating the multiple risk factors highlighted above. These risk factors are mainly the ones that promote destructive behaviours among the youth who are the most susceptible to criminal activities, such as knife and gun violence. On the other hand, protective factors are necessary to protect young people from vices detrimental to them and society. They have proven to have some degree of success in preventing crime prevalent among young people who want some sense of belonging, which they believe is attainable from criminal gangs (Mattson et al.,2020). Therefore, it is imperative to embrace different protective factors preventing young people’s exposure to these socially destructive vices that continue to pose a considerable threat to societal welfare.
In conclusion, gang, knife, and gun crime have become prevalent, especially among the young population worldwide. The main risk factors that contribute to this occurrence include economic deprivation, marginalisation, discrimination, peer influences, poor school achievement, poor mental health, and ACEs. While most of these risk factors are attributed to a sense of security, studies show that youths need to uphold physical, social, and economic stability during vulnerable times. The government, organisations, and families must implement protective measures to address such issues despite the different risk factors that serve as warning signs. These protective factors include dismantling discriminatory policies that have long marginalised minority groups, facilitating more mental healthcare facilities that provide the necessary mental well-being services, and building essential infrastructure, among other factors. Civic leaders, elected or appointed, community-based organisations, and other stakeholders must undertake a collective action that embraces the highlighted preventative measures to deter individuals from engaging in criminal activities that disadvantage the social welfare of all people in society.
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