Domestic violence is a major problem across families, and it is often perpetrated by close family members, relatives, friends, or even one’s community members. This essay reviews the state of literature and prevailing knowledge with regard to domestic violence in the Middle East Explicitly, it endeavors to ascertain the extent and prevalence of domestic violence in the Middle East, the reasons behind such prevalence, their impacts, and what can be done to mitigate, if not eradicate domestic violence. Best of the review, the Middle East is one of the regions with the highest rates of domestic violence. Part of this is due to patriarchal and male chauvinistic cultural norms and practices that denigrate the position of women in society while extolling male dominance over women and girls. The review also found out that domestic violence has dire repercussions on the mental health and well-being of women in the Middle East, limiting their potential, abilities, and overall quality of life. However, civic education and awareness around domestic violence, as well as general attitudinal changes with regard to the position of women in society, can go a long way in curbing gender-based violence in the Middle East.
Domestic violence remains a serious problem impacting women and children globally; even though the nature, extent, and prevalence of the problem vary from place to place, it is recognized as a global social issue in almost all communities. The World Health Organization (WHO) has elevated the issue of domestic violence to not only the levels of a worldwide epidemic but also a serious violation of human rights. Based on WHO estimates, for every three women, chances are one has experienced domestic violence at one point or the other or continues to endure domestic violence in the various ways that it manifests. The WHO holds that the situation is even worse when a regional comparative analysis is done. Domestic violence can be thought of as hostilities/harmful actions targeted at a person, mainly women and girls, in the family setup/domestic environment. It is a special type of gender-based violence happening in the family/domestic setup. In the Middle East, contextual social-cultural issues, especially the accepted position and role of women and girls in the region, make domestic violence a common and menacing problem impacting the health and well-being of women and girls in the region. It is vital to point out that domestic violence usually takes many forms and often manifests in different ways. At the same time, social-cultural relativism, in which what is considered violence tends to differ from place to place, has ensured that in many regions, some forms of domestic violence are fashioned as part of social-cultural practices as opposed to vile acts that should be condemned and stern actions taken against perpetrators. This is often witnessed in the Middle East and North America (MENA) regions, where some forms of domestic violence have been normalized as ordinary social-cultural conventions that are unique to the patriarchal nature of such societies. This essay reviews existing literature on domestic violence in the Middle East region. Explicitly, it probes what existing literature holds with regard to the prevalence of domestic violence in the Middle East, causes/reasons buttressing such prevalence, the impacts of domestic violence in the region, and the actions that can be taken to arrest instances of domestic violence in the Middle East.
Douki et al. (2003), when performing research on domestic violence in the Middle East, note that albeit domestic violence is a global issue impacting almost all regions, the extent and rate of occurrence of domestic violence in the Middle East is higher when compared to other regions, making domestic violence a leading hindrance to the development and well-being of women in the region. Douki et al. (2003) hold that domestic violence in the Middle East takes multifarious and assorted forms, ranging from physical and sexual abuse to psychological abuse, and it is often perpetrated by an intimate partner in a relationship or close family members. Domestic violence has been repeatedly mentioned as one of the major forms of gender-based violence that hinder the participation of women in many social-political aspects in the Middle East. According to Obeid et al. (2010), the United Nations Funds for Population Activities (UNFPA) places domestic violence rates in some Middle Eastern countries like Lebanon at one in every four women. However, UNFPA cautions that given that reporting is much lower and there is a dearth of official data, the prevalence of domestic violence is actually much higher in the region than what official reports can capture. These sentiments are also shared by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, which describes the lack of reporting on domestic violence in the country as one of the main issues hindering accurate accounts of the actual prevalence of the menace among the population (Assaf & Chaban, 2013).
According to Assaf and Chaban (2013), the nature of domestic violence in the Middle East is such that reporting is often frowned upon; as a consequence, a good number often suffer in silence and fear of trepidation. Nevertheless, Assaf and Chaban (2013) note that some of the prevalent manifestations of domestic violence in the Middle East take the form of marital rape, honor killing, acid attacks, and even femicide. Marital rape entails forced sexual acts on a couple without their consent. In the Middle East, there is often a general tendency to overlook marital rape as, culturally, marriage is believed to give the man some degree of entitlement when it comes to sex with their spouse or even the autonomy and body of the spouse in question. On the other hand, honor killing is the murder of close family members, usually women or girls, for contributing shame to the family or community (Assaf & Chaban, 2013). Honor killings in the Middle East, a manifestation of domestic violence, are often a result of accusations of adultery, premarital sex, or declining/rejecting forced marriage arrangements. Acid attacks entail throwing a burning/corrosive liquid like acid on the face of a woman or girl and often stem from jealousy, revenge, rejection, or when the subject is deemed to be defiant of the authority of their husband. Femicide involves killing a girl because of her gender, and it is considered the most extreme manifestation of gender discrimination (Assaf & Chaban, 2013).
According to Hamdan-Mansour et al. (2011), while studying domestic violence in the Middle East note that one of the main reasons behind the prevalent instance of domestic violence in the region, including the various ways through which it manifests within the population, has to do with culture, values, norms and practices exercised in the Middle East. The nature of cultural practices, norms and values prevalent in the Middle East are immensely patriarchal in which tremendous weight and importance is attached to men and boys while girls and women endure subordinations (Hamdan-Mansour et al., 2011). According to Kassas et al. (2020), these male chauvinistic cultural practices and belief systems shape the attitudes and perceptions that men have towards women, as well as the entire concept of domestic violence. By way of illustration, patriarchal and male chauvinistic cultural practices, norms, and beliefs often drive some men to employ violence against their wives or families as a way of exerting authority or control. At the same time, many women and girls within the Arab world also accept their status in society, seeing male dominance and aspects like a man using violence to exert authority as standard aspects of family life and marriage (Obeid et al., 2010), (Kassas et al., 2020).
There are other reasons behind the pervasive prevalence and incidences of domestic violence in the Middle East and the Arab world in general, but they all have their essence in social-cultural norms and practices, especially patriarchy and male chauvinism. According to Abujilban et al. (2021), legal discrimination and impunity when it comes to incidences of domestic violence in the Middle East, in which most countries in the Middle East have no specific statutory restrictions towards domestic violence and many of its forms of manifestations, immensely contribute to the spread of the problem. On the legal front, there are equally discriminative laws in most Middle east countries blatantly discriminating against women and girls, including leniency on honor crimes and marital rapes, as well as making it obligatory for a woman to acquire the consent of her husband or an equivalent male guardian before accessing services, be they legal or otherwise. Abujilban et al. (2021) see this legal discrimination and impunity as stemming from a patriarchal and male chauvinistic culture that devalues the position and role of women both in the family as well as society while hyperbolizing and aggrandizing the stature, role, and position of men and boys.
Another main contributor to the high prevalence of domestic violence in many Middle Eastern countries also has to do with conflict displacement and poverty. According to Maker et al. (2012 the nature of domestic violence is such that it exists where there is a power imbalance, domination, and dependence. In most Middle Eastern countries and families, male dominion creates a power imbalance with the man as the head of the family, the provider, and the decision maker. Women end up lacking financial resources or even standings of their own. Such economic dependence creates a situation where women cannot leave abusive family establishments because they rely on the latter for survival (Maker et al., 2012). This also means that even opportunities for women outside of the family set are also severely limited. This is not to mention the dearth of efforts that are targeted at empowering women, such as formal education and employment. Women have no option but to be submissive to their men because the outside environment offers no options or alternatives for women who would opt otherwise (Maker et al., 2012).
Closely related to dependence is conflict and poverty. The Middle East has, over the years, witnessed turbulence, tumult, and incessant displacement of people due to conflict, some orchestrated by external geopolitical forces and others by poor leadership in the region. The humanitarian crises, as well as despair arising from such conflicts, have exacerbated the vulnerability of women and girls to domestic violence in a culture where they are inherently subordinated (Maker et al., 2012). Conflict, displacement, and poverty bring frustrations, stress, and insecurity that heighten the likelihood of household violence. This is not to mention the role of conflict, displacement, and poverty in destroying the social and even economic structures that are supposed to protect women and girls against domestic violence.
According to Alnabilsy et al. (2022), one of the main impacts of domestic violence in the Middle East, especially against women and girls who are often at the receiving ends of such violence, is their mental and physical health. Domestic violence and the various forms in which it manifests, ranging from physical assault, marital rape, and even honor killing, has devastating physical and mental repercussions, including bodily harm, unwanted pregnancies, HIV infections, and mental scars and trauma that endures for generations. Survivors of domestic violence grapple with post-traumatic stress disorders. There are elevated rates of depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and even suicidal ideation among women and girls who are victims of domestic violence (Alnabilsy et al., 2022). It is a form of oppression that leaves women and girls scarred for life. In its grandest form, domestic violence is a human rights violence and a form of injustice perpetrated against the recipients, who are usually women and girls in the context of the Middle East.
High rates and prevalence of domestic violence in the Middle East are also characterized by restricted mobility and lost opportunities for women and girls. According to Alnabilsy et al. (2022), opportunities as well as mobility of women in many parts of the Middle East are extremely limited thanks to the domestic violence that most abusive men use to exert control and dominance against women. Social economic, personal, and political development and empowerment of women in the Middle East are also severely limited, thanks to a culture that glorifies domestic violence as a form of control for women and girls (Alnabilsy et al., 2022). Moreover, there is an economic aspect to domestic violence, especially the healthcare expenditures in instances of bodily harm or even lost earnings or reduced capital outcomes from such injuries.
According to Alsehaimi and Helal (2021), curbing domestic violence in the Middle East requires a cultural shift and attitudinal change that involves viewing women and girls as equal to men and boys in society. This attitudinal change can be realized through awareness and civic education initiatives targeting the general public (Alsehaimi & Helal, 2021). Public awareness and attitudinal changes can go a long way in ensuring that other aspects related to domestic violence and the overall state and position of women in general, like a strong legal and policy framework against domestic violence, building the social and economic capacity of women and even supporting and empowering the participation of women and girls in other spheres are possible. According to García-Moreno et al. (2013), without a radical change in mindset and change in perspectives with regard to the position of women in society in the Middle East and the Arab world in general, it is very difficult for any initiative aimed at curbing domestic violence to realize lasting and notable change.
Domestic violence is a major problem throughout the Middle East. Due to regional social-cultural practices and norms, domestic violence, prevalence as well as extent is embellished in the Middle East. Various forms of domestic violence common in the Middle East include physical assault, marital rape, honor killing, and even femicide. The elevated levels of domestic violence in the Middle East are a result of culture, norms, and practices that prefer boys and men. The impacts of domestic violence are dire and long-lasting and include trauma and bodily harm, among others. Tackling domestic violence in the Middle East requires a grand awareness campaign aimed at enlightening the masses with regard to male chauvinistic practices that prefer men and boys at the expense of women and girls.
Abujilban, S., Mrayan, L., Hamaideh, S., Obeisat, S., & Damra, J. (2021). Intimate partner violence against pregnant Jordanian women at the time of COVID-19 pandemic’s quarantine. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(5-6), NP2442-NP2464. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520984259
Alnabilsy, R., Pagorek-Eshel, S., & Elias, H. (2022). The self-identity construction of Arab young women who were abused in childhood within a complex cultural and socio-political context. Journal of Family Violence, 38(1), 91-103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-021-00343-9
Alsehaimi, A., & Helal, I. E. (2021). The role of social programs in Saudi Arabia to prevent domestic violence, compared to developed countries: A systematic literature review. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 09(11), 102-115. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2021.911009
Assaf, S., & Chaban, S. (2013). Domestic violence against single, never-married women in the occupied Palestinian territory. Violence Against Women, 19(3), 422-441. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801213486330
Douki, S., Nacef, F., Belhadj, A., Bouasker, A., & Ghachem, R. (2003). Violence against women in Arab and Islamic countries. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 6(3), 165-171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-003-0170-x
García-Moreno, C., World Health Organization, Pallitto, C., Devries, K., Stöckl, H., Watts, C., & Abrahams, N. (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: Prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. World Health Organization.
Hamdan-Mansour, A. M., Arabiat, D. H., Sato, T., Obaid, B., & Imoto, A. (2011). Marital abuse and psychological well-being among women in the southern region of Jordan. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 22(3), 265-273. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043659611404424
Kassas, S., Abdelnour, N., & Makhoul, J. (2020). “Hitting as light as feathers”: Religious leaders’ voices on domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(3-4), 1270-1291. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520922349
Maker, A. H., Shah, P. V., & Agha, Z. (2012). Child physical abuse: Prevalence, characteristics, predictors, and beliefs about parent-child violence in South Asian, middle eastern, east Asian, and Latina women in the United States. Child Maltreatment: A Collection of Readings, 312-328. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452230689.n19
Obeid, N., Chang, D. F., & Ginges, J. (2010). Beliefs about wife beating: An exploratory study with lebanese students. Violence Against Women, 16(6), 691-712. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801210370465