The intersection of gender and other factors, such as ethnicity, socio-economic status, and sexual orientation, represents a complex phenomenon that determines the experiences of people. The relationship between these factors is critical when analyzing why inequalities and marginalization affect some groups more than others. Various approaches are used to explain this complex phenomenon, such as the theory of gender, which explores the socio-economic and cultural influences of gender. The theory is critical in defining how gender determines the experiences of people and issues such as female sexuality and women’s mental health.
The intersection of gender and ethnicity is a massive determinant of people’s experiences because the two social identities are not independent but continually relate and determine people’s social, economic, political, and cultural paths. Often, gender and ethnic intersectionality are explored when exploring why some groups face inequalities in society compared to others (López-Mosquera, 2016). Le and Dinh (2015) explain that intersectionality recognizes that different social identities may present several types of discrimination, such as when an immigrant woman from Asia faces discrimination due to her gender and ethnicity. With this knowledge, it is easier to understand how various types of discrimination increase inequality or why some groups remain poor despite the initiatives put in place to address them.
Gender is a term used to describe a broad spectrum of socially constructed social identities, with men and women being the primary forms of these identities. The gender assigned to a person attracts social definitions that include the individual’s expectations, roles, and outcomes (Lorber, 2018). Ethnicity is the social belonging of an individual to a group that shares a common culture, religion, language, or nationality. In most cases, the gender and ethnicity of a person trigger discrimination or privilege based on the social context the person is exposed to. For example, when recruiting people in male-dominated jobs, López-Mosquera (2016) notes that women from ethnic minorities are more likely to miss out on employment due to widespread stereotypes attached to their gender and ethnicity. Such instances create inequalities in employment that then result in low socio-economic status.
A typical example in which the intersection of gender and ethnicity is explored is in education to understand the cause of educational inequalities between immigrants and whites. Immigrants face unique barriers, such as language and religious barriers, which limit their successful navigation of the country (López-Mosquera, 2016). Also, some immigrants may have limited resources to access a good education for their children. Their ethnicity may further intersect with gender to create more inequalities, mainly if they stem from cultures that place a strong emphasis on educating boys while girls tend to do domestic chores (López-Mosquera, 2016). For example, immigrant girls may be viewed as having less educational ability than boys of the same ethnicity. This then translates to lower academic performance for these girls and lower employment opportunities, causing lower socio-economic status among these girls compared to boys from the same ethnic group.
The barriers created by the intersection of gender and ethnicity indicate how two further intersect with low socio-economic status to cause poor outcomes for some groups. For example, if the immigrant family above had stable finances, they would ensure the children get access to quality education (López-Mosquera, 2016).Further, if ethnic beliefs promoted educational equality among boys and girls, the girls would have better educational outcomes. Therefore, theeducation inequality faced by women from ethnic minorities is attributed to inequalities created by gender, ethnicity, and socio-economic status.
The foundations of the theory of gender stem from the belief that gender is not determined by biological features but by a wide range of socially constructed norms and beliefs. Therefore, the gender assigned to a person attracts pre-determined roles, expressions, and beliefs and guides how an individual perceives themselves, the interaction of people, and power dynamics in society (Lorber, 2018).This definition of gender allows the expansion of the theory of gender to include unique experiences of people, such as transgender, non-binary, and individuals who do not conform to traditional definitions of gender(Sofra, 2020).Also, to address inequalities created by masculine and feminine social definitions of gender, the theory includes feminist and queer perspectives (López-Mosquera, 2016). The main benefit of gender theory is that it helps understand how different groups relate to the broader social context.
The theory of gender and the broad definition of gender identity also help explain how gender can cause inequalities, such as why transgender people face discrimination in employment, causing poverty and inequity. In recent decades, gender theory has included the idea that gender is not binary, giving rise to queer theory, which opposes masculine and feminine genders as the only two genders (Austin, 2016). It promotes that gender is fluid, allowing people to take on gender and sexual orientation that suits their experiences, and these identities may change over time.
Queer theory encourages people to acquire their preferred gender identity and embrace the sexuality they desire. Queer theory allows people to gain a deeper understanding of how binary gender definition creates power differences, creating discrimination and privilege for widely accepted groups, such as why a transgender woman may be discriminated against in employment because their gender fails to fit widely accepted gender norms (Austin, 2016). Gender theory also explains how gender intersects with other identities, such as ethnicity. For example, transgender people face much discrimination if they live in deeply religious societies (López-Mosquera, 2016). They may be victimized, attacked, and left out of social gatherings or employment opportunities.
Gender theory also includes feminist theories, which advocate for equality between men and women. They reject patriarchal notions that place men at a higher power status, with women occupying the inferior position (Butler, 2016). Feminist theories argue that women are left out of social-political and economic positions of power, exposing them to other forms of oppression, such as domestic abuse and oppression (Lorber, 2018). Feminist theories evolve to accommodate the intersection of gender with other social identities, such as race, sexuality, and ethnicity (Butler, 2016). Thisis fueled by the idea that women face inequalities that stem from other social identities other than gender. Exploring these identities provides a holistic understanding of a person’s life.
Female sexuality is diverse to include cultural norms, behaviors, and experiences such as female sexual identity, sexual behaviors, roles, and reproduction. Female sexuality attracts a wide range of issues, but the main ones include negative stereotypes and stigma, inequality, and intersection with other factors such as sexual orientation (Sofra, 2020). The first issue is negative stereotypes attached to female sexuality, fuelled by cultural beliefs that negatively portray female sexuality (López-Mosquera, 2016). In some societies, female sexuality is viewed as a tool of pleasure for men, and this makes it easier for men to abuse women (Sofra, 2020). The view of female sexuality as a tool attracts instances such as sexual abuse, which limits women from expressing dissatisfaction if sexual activity is performed against their will (Sofra, 2020). In other societies, some female sexuality is related to bad occurrences, such as menstruation being viewed as making women dirty and making women feel ashamed of the natural biological process.
The second issue is inequality, which stems from the cultural beliefs that female sexuality is inferior and that any person who identifies with this sexuality is weak. This makes women viewed as inferior and unsuitable to occupy high positions of power in society (Sofra, 2020). Any woman who attempts to cross this barrier is discriminated against. The inferiority of female sexuality is complex to counter because it is supported by cultural, religious, and traditional beliefs that are continually passed down to people (Sofra, 2020). The socialization of female sexuality as inferior is widely accepted in some societies, making it hard for women to counter this discrimination (Ford et al., 2019). For example, women face significant inequalities in access to education, employment, and political systems. This exposes them to less power; these inequalities in power dynamics often marginalize them.
Third, there is an intersection of female sexuality with other social identities, such as race and sexual orientation. The intersection of race and female sexuality often causes inequalities for women, particularly if the woman is exposed to negative stereotypes associated with a particular race. For example, Sofra (2020) explains that an African American woman may face stereotypes that label them as an aggressive partner, negatively affecting intimate relationships. Also, women whose sexual orientations defy the widely accepted norms, such as lesbian and queer women, face more discrimination than women who follow the binary models of sexual orientation (Sofra, 2020). The intersection of female sexuality with other identities exposes women to various forms of discrimination, such as discrimination based on gender, sexual orientation, and race. The barriers created by the intersection of these factors create systemic barriers in housing, education, and employment, meaning an individual faced with these barriers tends to have a lower socio-economic status than people who follow widely accepted norms on female sexuality.
Men and women face almost similar mental health challenges, but there are some issues unique to women that may trigger the rise of mental health issues in women. Key among these issues are gender expectations, inequality in access to mental health care services, and violence against women. First, gender expectations placed on women are very high, particularly in cultures with deep cultural beliefs and norms (Butler, 2016).Women are expected to adopt gender roles such as caring for children, husbands, and domestic chores (McGarry et al., 2017).Women may have difficulty creating a good balance of these issues, which causes them to be stressed, particularly if they feel they have failed.This increases the risk of mental illness, and if adequate healthcare access is not available, mental health issues may negatively affect the quality of life of the woman.
Second, there is inequality in access to health care services; women, due to gender inequality, have access to fewer financial opportunities compared to men. This limits women’s access to basic services, including health insurance, with women of color facing higher rates of poverty than whites (McGarry et al., 2017). Inadequate access to health care means that mental health challenges facing women are not adequately detected or treated (Butler, 2016). Mental health illness in women may be exacerbated by other factors such as having a higher number of children than the woman can take care of, being the only provider for the family, and having low educational qualifications.
Third, in domestic settings, women face higher levels of violence than men. Women face higher levels of sexual and intimate partner violence and traumatic events that hurt their mental health (Butler, 2016). As such, these women may suffer from issues such as stress, anxiety, and depression, which negatively affect their quality of life (McGarry et al., 2017). High levels of violence are higher in societies with deep stereotypical cultural beliefs about the role of women in society. These stereotypes support the different forms of violence against women, meaning these women suffer from violence and mental health issues in silence and lack appropriate mental care interventions.
Gender is a social construct that includes norms, roles, expectations, and beliefs associated with each gender. Gender dictates how people act and interact with others and is a crucial determinant of power differences between men and women. When gender intersects with ethnicity, it creates inequalities for women from ethnic minorities, exposing them to factors such as low education, low employment opportunities, and inadequate housing. The theory of gender helps in exploring the inequalities between men and women and why some groups, such as queer, non-binary, transgender, and women, defy traditional gender definitions, which create widespread disparities. Ultimately, Gender dynamics are critical when understanding issues regarding female sexuality and women’s mental health.
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